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charter school

Толкование Перевод

1 charter school

charter school n US école f à charte.

ⓘ Charter schools Écoles subventionnées par l'État mais dirigées conjointement par des conseils de parents et d'enseignants. L'école et l'État s'entendent sur une ‘charte’ dans laquelle sont fixés les résultats scolaires à atteindre, le contenu pédagogique des enseignements et la gestion de l'établissement. Les écoles à charte sont affranchies des réglementations scolaires communes aux écoles d'état, mais en échange de cette autonomie, elles sont tenues responsables du taux de réussite des élèves.

Big English-French dictionary > charter school
2 charter school

Общая лексика: чартерная школа (появились в США в 1991-1992 гг.), привилегированная школа

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > charter school
3 charter school

nome AE = tipo di scuola privata riconosciuta e sovvenzionata dallo Stato

* * *

nome AE = tipo di scuola privata riconosciuta e sovvenzionata dallo Stato

English-Italian dictionary > charter school
4 charter school

шко́ла с со́бственным уста́вом (вид муниципальной спецшколы для особой группы детей, часто для этнической группы)

The Americanisms. English-Russian dictionary. > charter school
5 charter school

s.

escuela semiautónoma.

Nuevo Diccionario Inglés-Español > charter school
6 ♦ charter

♦ charter /ˈtʃɑ:tə(r)/
n.

1 (documento di) concessione ( da parte di un governo o di un sovrano); statuto; carta; patente: (stor.) the Great Charter, la Magna Charta; (in GB) by Royal Charter, per decreto reale

2 (leg.) atto istitutivo; carta; statuto: the Charter of the United Nations (o UN C.) la Carta delle Nazioni Unite

3 (in GB) (con attr.) carta dei diritti

4 [u] (comm.) noleggio; nolo: charter service, servizio di noleggio

5 (comm.) nave o aereo noleggiato; charter

6 viaggio (in un charter)

● (naut.) charter broker, broker marittimo, sensale di noli □ (aeron.) charter flight, volo charter □ (fig.) a charter for, una licenza di (fare qc. di criticabile o riprovevole); carta bianca per □ (aeron., naut.) charter freight, nolo contrattuale □ charter market, mercato dei noli □ charter member, socio fondatore □ charter party, (comm.) contratto di noleggio; ( anche) passeggeri di un charter □ (in USA) charter school, scuola privata legalmente riconosciuta.
(to) charter /ˈtʃɑ:tə(r)/
v. t.

1 ( di governo, sovrano, ecc.) concedere uno statuto, un documento, un privilegio, un'esenzione a

2 (comm.) noleggiare ( una nave, un aereo, ecc.).

English-Italian dictionary > ♦ charter
7 charter

1. n
1) уста́в м; ха́ртия ж

United Nations Charter — Уста́в ООН

charter member — член о́бщества со дня его́ основа́ния

2) мор, авиа ча́ртер м

- charter flight
- charter school 2. v
1) мор фрахтова́ть

2) сдава́ть внаём (автобус, самолёт)

3) зака́зывать (автобус, самолёт)

charter ed bus — заказно́й авто́бус

The Americanisms. English-Russian dictionary. > charter
8 convert

['kɒnvɜːt]
1) Общая лексика: конвертировать, обращать, переделать, переделывать, перерабатывать, переставлять, пересчитать из текущих цен в постоянные, перешедший из одной партии в другую, превратить, превращать, преобразовывать, присваивать (имущество), трансформировать, человек, изменивший свои взгляды, человек, изменивший свои убеждения, видоизменять, обратить, перепрофилировать (предприятие или учебное заведение) (Convert a school or close it and re-open it as a charter school or under an education management organization.), перевербовать (агента), превращаться (из чего-то во что-то), переводить величины, преображаться, завербовать

2) Компьютерная техника: преобразовать

3) Морской термин: модернизировать, переводить (из одной меры в другую), переводить из одних единиц в другие, переоборудованный

4) Американизм: обращаться (в другую веру)

5) Спорт: реализовать (момент)

6) Военный термин: переходить на новую технику

7) Техника: переводить (напр. единицы измерения), реконструировать (перестраивать), пересчитывать (переходить на другую систему единиц)

8) Математика: обратиться, свести, сводить

9) Религия: обращённый в другую веру, обращённый в католичество, обращаться, последовать за Христом, уверовать, новообращённый, обращать в другую веру, обращаться в другую веру, неофит

10) Юридический термин: изменять юридический статус, обменивать, обратить в свою пользу, обращать в свою пользу, присваивать движимое имущество, присвоить

11) Бухгалтерия: пересчитывать (из текущих цен в постоянные)

12) Лесоводство: заготавливать, заготовить, обработать, распиливать

13) Металлургия: замещать

14) Полиграфия: перестраивать (о печатном аппарате), запечатывать (о пленке, бумаге и пр. запечатываемых материалах)

15) Текстиль: перерабатывать (сырьё)

16) Космонавтика: преобразоваться

17) Метрология: переводить (из одной системы единиц в другую)

18) Патенты: преобразовывать (напр. дополнительный патент в основной)

19) Деловая лексика: изменять юридический характер собственности, обращать вверенное имущество в свою пользу, перестраивать, присваивать движимость, реконструировать

20) Бурение: переводить (единицы, меры), переоборудовать

21) Инвестиции: пересчитывать из текущих цен в постоянные

22) Полимеры: изменять, переводить из одной системы измерения в другую

23) Контроль качества: переходить к новому изделию

24) Оружейное производство: трансформировать данные

25) Макаров: обращать (в другую веру), переводить (величины, единицы измерения и т.п.), перестраивать (здание), реконструировать (здание), реконструировать (перестраивать с целью улучшения, приспосабливать для новых нужд)

26) Табуированная лексика: переубеждённый

27) Христианство: обращённый, обращать в веру

28) Электротехника: преобразовывать частоту

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > convert
9 AACSC

1) Военный термин: Army Automation and Communications Steering Committee

2) Религия: African American Christian Student Conference

3) Театр: Asian Art Curators Of Southern California

4) Образование: Arkansas Apprenticeship Coordination Steering Committee, Austin Area Charter School Cooperative

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > AACSC
10 vuelo

Del verbo volar: ( conjugate volar) \ \
vuelo es: \ \
1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo
Multiple Entries: volar vuelo
volar ( conjugate volar) verbo intransitivo 1 [pájaro/avión] to fly 2
a) [ tiempo] to fly;

◊ ¡cómo vuela el tiempo! doesn't time fly!;
las malas noticias vuelan bad news travels fast
b)

◊ volando ger ‹comer/cambiarse› in a rush, in a hurry;
se fue volando he/she rushed off; sus clases se me pasan volando her classes seem to go so quickly 3
a) ( con el viento) [ sombrero] to blow off;

◊ vueloon todos los papeles my papers blew all over the place

b) (fam) ( desaparecer) [dinero/pasteles] to vanish, disappear
verbo transitivo 1 ‹puente/edificio› to blow up; ‹ caja fuerte› to blow 2 (Méx, Ven fam) ( robar) to swipe (colloq), to nick (BrE colloq) volarse verbo pronominal 1
a) (Col fam) [ preso] to escape

b) (Col, Méx fam) [ alumno] to play hooky (esp AmE colloq), to skive off (school) (BrE colloq)
2
a) (Méx fam) ( coquetear) to flirt

b) (Méx, Ven fam) ( robar) to swipe (colloq), nick (BrE colloq)

vuelo sustantivo masculino 1
a) ( acción):

◊ el vuelo de las gaviotas the seagulls' flight;
remontar el vuelo to soar up; alzar or levantar el vuelo [ pájaro] to fly away o off; [ avión] to take off; [ persona] to fly o leave the nest;
◊ a vuelo de pájaro (AmL): un cálculo a vuelo de pájaro a rough estimate;
lo leí a vuelo de pájaro I just skimmed through it
b) (Aviac) flight;

◊ son dos horas de vuelo it is a two-hour flight;
vuelo charter/regular charter/schedule flight; vuelo internacional/nacional international/domestic o internal flight; vuelo sin motor gliding, soaring (AmE) 2 ( en costura) ( amplitud):
◊ la falda tiene mucho vuelo it is a very full skirt

volar
I verbo intransitivo
1 (un avión, ave, insecto) to fly: la mosca echó a volar, the fly flew off
2 (apresuradamente) volando, in a flash, in a hurry: nos fuimos volando, we rushed off
3 fam (terminarse, desaparecer) to disappear, vanish: todo el dinero que tenía voló en cuestión de meses, he blew all his money in a question of months
II vtr (usando explosivos: una casa, fábrica, etc) to blow up (: una caja blindada, etc) to blow open
vuelo sustantivo masculino
1 (de un ave, avión, etc) flight
vuelo chárter, charter flight
vuelo espacial, spaceflight
vuelo regular, scheduled flight
vuelo sin motor, gliding
2 Cost (amplitud de una falda) tiene mucho vuelo, it's very full Locuciones: cazarlas/cogerlas al vuelo, to be quick on the uptake fam (de importancia) de altos vuelos, high fliers ' vuelo' also found in these entries: Spanish: alzar - cazar - campana - hora - procedente - rasa - rasante - raso - reconocimiento - reserva - simular - simulador - simuladora - sobrecargo - auxiliar - conectar - controlador - destino - desviar - directo - doméstico - enlazar - espacial - nacional - nocturno - operar - pasar - remontar - suspender - zarandear English: airborne - aloft - announce - book - bumpy - cancel - charter flight - connect - delay - delayed - domestic - due - fall away - flight - flight attendant - flight recorder - flight-deck - gliding - hang-gliding - hold up - hop - in-flight - inbound - incoming - instrument - jump at - luckily - nonstop - notify - originate - outward - pin - quick - route - scheduled flight - space flight - steward - takeoff - air - flare - flared - flounce - flying - frill - from - hang - high - log - ruffle - schedule

English-spanish dictionary > vuelo
11 bus

1. noun
(a large road vehicle for carrying passengers: He came by bus.) autobús

2. verb
(to carry by bus.) transportar en autobús

- bus stop

bus n autobús

shall we go by bus or walk? ¿vamos en autobús o a pie?

bus sustantivo masculino (Auto, Transp) bus; (Inf) bus
bus sustantivo masculino bus ' bus' also found in these entries: Spanish: anillo - autobús - bonobús - busero - callo - camioneta - carril - colarse - colectiva - colectivero - colectivo - contramano - en - encontrarse - escaparse - estación - guagua - odisea - parada - piso - precipitarse - repleta - repleto - terminal - trayecto - trole - trolebús - acercar - autocar - bambú - bolsear - buseta - cambio - camión - camionero - carterear - cebú - chiva - cobrador - equivocar - flota - liebre - micrero - micro - microbús - ómnibus - pasar - tabú - tique - tirón English: along - between - bus - bus conductor - bus depot - bus driver - bus route - bus station - bus stop - by - come along - come up - double-decker - early - go - hop - lane - let off - occupation - on - opt - preferable - school bus - set down - shelter - stand - aboard - charter - coach - conductor - crowded - deck - decrepit - depot - double - drive - driver - express - fare - get - jolt - late - limited - locker - miss - operate - ply - pull - rather - ride

bus

tr[bʌs]

noun (pl buses (|us| busses))

1 autobús nombre masculino, bus nombre masculino

2 SMALLCOMPUTING/SMALL bus nombre masculino

transitive verb

1 transportar en autobús, llevar en autobús

■ they bus them to school les llevan a la escuela en autobús

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

bus conductor cobrador

bus conductress cobradora

bus lane carril nombre masculino de autobuses

bus route línea de autobús

bus shelter parada de autobús cubierta

bus station estación nombre femenino de autobuses

bus stop parada de autobús

bus ['bʌs] v, bused or bussed ['bʌst] ; busing or bussing ['bʌsɪŋ] vt

: transportar en autobús

bus vi

: viajar en autobús

bus n

: autobús m, bus m, camión m Mex, colectivo m Arg, Bol, Peru

bus

n.

(§ pl.: buses) US or busses UK

• = autobús s.m.

• autocar s.m.

• guagua s.f.

• ómnibus s.m.

I bʌs
noun (pl buses or AmE also busses) ( Transp)

a) ( local) autobús m, bus m (AmL), camión m (AmC, Méx), colectivo m (Arg), ómnibus m (Per, Ur), micro f (Chi), guagua f (Cu)

to look like o have a face like the back (end) of a bus — (colloq) ser* feo con ganas (fam); (before n)

bus conductor — cobrador, -dora m,f, guarda mf (RPl) de autobuses

bus driver — conductor, -tora m,f or chofer mf or (Esp) chófer mf de autobús, camionero, -ra m,f (AmC, Méx), colectivero, -ra m,f (Arg), microbusero, -ra m,f (Chi)

bus stop — parada f or (AmL exc RPl) paradero m de autobús (or bus etc); miss II I 2)

b) ( long-distance) autobús m, autocar m (Esp), pullman m (CS)

II

transitive verb -s- or - ss- llevar or transportar en autobús (or bus etc); \<\<schoolchildren\>\> ( in US) transportar a colegios fuera de su zona para favorecer la integración racial

[bʌs] (pl buses or (US) buses or busses)
1. N

1) (=city bus) autobús m, colectivo m (Ven, Arg), micro m (Chile, Bol), camión m (Mex); (=coach) autocar m, flota f (Bol, Col)

to come/go by bus — venir/ir en autobús

- miss the bus

2) ** (=car) cacharro * m ; (=plane) avión m viejo

3) (Comput) bus m

2.

VT llevar en autobús

the children are bussed to school — los niños van al colegio en autobús

3. VI

1) (=go by bus) ir en autobús

2) (US) * (in cafe) quitar los platos de la mesa

4.

CPD

bus company N — empresa f de autobús

bus conductor N — cobrador(a) m / f

bus conductress N — cobradora f

bus depot N — cochera f de autobuses

bus driver N — conductor(a) m / f de autobús

bus fare N — (=ticket price) tarifa f del autobús, precio m del autobús; (=bus money) dinero m del autobús

bus lane N — (Brit) carril m de autobuses, carril-bus m

bus pass N — (Brit) abono m de autobús

bus route N — recorrido m del autobús

the house is on a bus route — pasa un autobús por delante de la casa

bus service N — servicio m de autobuses

bus shelter N — marquesina f de autobús

bus station N — estación f de autobuses

bus stop N — parada f, paradero m (LAm)

bus ticket N — billete m de autobús
bus 1., 1)
* * *

I [bʌs]
noun (pl buses or AmE also busses) ( Transp)

a) ( local) autobús m, bus m (AmL), camión m (AmC, Méx), colectivo m (Arg), ómnibus m (Per, Ur), micro f (Chi), guagua f (Cu)

to look like o have a face like the back (end) of a bus — (colloq) ser* feo con ganas (fam); (before n)

bus conductor — cobrador, -dora m,f, guarda mf (RPl) de autobuses

bus driver — conductor, -tora m,f or chofer mf or (Esp) chófer mf de autobús, camionero, -ra m,f (AmC, Méx), colectivero, -ra m,f (Arg), microbusero, -ra m,f (Chi)

bus stop — parada f or (AmL exc RPl) paradero m de autobús (or bus etc); miss II I 2)

b) ( long-distance) autobús m, autocar m (Esp), pullman m (CS)

II

transitive verb -s- or - ss- llevar or transportar en autobús (or bus etc); \<\<schoolchildren\>\> ( in US) transportar a colegios fuera de su zona para favorecer la integración racial

English-spanish dictionary > bus
12 pública

Del verbo publicar: ( conjugate publicar) \ \
publica es: \ \
3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo

2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo
Multiple Entries: publicar pública
publicar ( conjugate publicar) verbo transitivo
a) ‹artículo/noticia› to publish

b) ( divulgar) to divulge, disclose

publicar verbo transitivo
1 (libro, etc) to publish: publicó su primera novela, she published her first novel
2 (divulgar) to publicize
público,-a
I adjetivo
1 public
hacer público algo, to announce sthg
2 (de control estatal) public
una biblioteca pública, a public library
un colegio público, a state school
una empresa pública, a state-owned company
II sustantivo masculino
1 public: el museo cierra al público los lunes, the museum closes to the public on Mondays
una película para todos los públicos, a film suitable for the general public
2 Cine Teat audience
3 (en deporte) crowd, spectators pl
4 (de publicaciones) readership Locuciones: en público, in public
ser de dominio público, to be common knowledge ' pública' also found in these entries: Spanish: administración - biblioteca - concurso - deuda - empresa - fama - hacienda - intimidad - mujer - OPA - polvareda - público - sanidad - televisión - apartado - asistencia - atención - denuncia - editor - escuela - opinión - propiedad - subastar English: bath - busing - civil service - Internal Revenue Service - IRS - public library - public opinion - public school - sanitation - spotlight - state school - takeover bid - thoroughfare - which - certify - charter - civil - condemn - health - high - public - state - swing - take - thorough - treasury

English-spanish dictionary > pública
13 law

1. n право; правоведение

criminal law — уголовное право

international law, law of nations — международное право

international private law — частное международное право

universal international law — универсальное международное право

law of the sea — морское право

space law — космическое право

law of war — право войны, законы и обычаи войны

natural law — естественное право

law of treaties — право, регулирующее международные договоры

law of civil procedure — гражданско-процессуальное право

law of criminal procedure — уголовно-процессуальное право

law of nations — международное право

humanitarian law — гуманитарное право

law of actions — процессуальное право

law of conflict — коллизионное право

law of navigation — право судоходства

2. n профессия юриста

law language — юридический язык, юридическая терминология

law school — юридическая школа

doctor of law — доктор юридических наук

the faculty of law — юридический факультет

to study law, to go to the law — изучать право

to follow the law — быть или стать юристом

law officers of the Crown — юристы короны

law agent — поверенный, стряпчий; юрист

a man of law — законник; адвокат; юрист

man of law — законник; адвокат; юрист

3. n суд, судебный процесс

law sitting — время сессий судов; месяцы, когда суды заседают

law reports — сборники судебных решений

case law of courts — судебная практика

law clerk — судебный делопроизводитель

court of common law — суд общего права

relief at law — средство судебной защиты

Lynch law — закон или суд Линча, самосуд

4. n закон

law of nature — закон природы

the laws of motion — законы движения

the law of gravity — закон тяготения

the law of conservation of energy — закон сохранения энергии

economic laws — экономические законы

the law of supply and demand — закон спроса и предложения

the law of self-preservation — инстинкт самосохранения

with the utmost rigour of the law — по всей строгости закона

to clarify the law — разъяснить смысл правовой нормы, закона

to answer in law — предстать перед судом; ответить по закону

radioactive displacement law — закон радиоактивного смещения

offence punishable by law — преступление, караемое по закону

5. n принятый, установленный обычай

laws of honour — кодекс чести

congressional law — регламент конгресса; обычаи конгресса

official law — принятый закон; закон, вступивший в силу

established by law — учреждённый, установленный законом

law and usage of Parliament — парламентский обычай

fixed by law — установленный законом

6. n правила

the laws of golf — правила игры в гольф

law of least squares — правило наименьших квадратов

compound interest law — правило сложных процентов

law of Dulong and Petit — правило Дюлонга и Пти

foreign exchange law — правило валютного обмена

law of salvage — правила спасания на море

7. n спорт. фора, преимущество, предоставляемое противнику в состязании

citizens are coordinates in a court of law — в суде все граждане равны

8. n разг. поблажка

the law of the jungle

to lay down the law

9. v разг. обращаться в суд

law court — суд

count of law — суд

court of law — законный суд

go to the law — обращаться в суд

common law court — суд общего права

10. v диал. разг. навязывать свою волю

he wrests the law to suit himself — он истолковывает смысл закона в свою пользу

Синонимический ряд:

1. assize (noun) act; assize; canon; decree; decretum; edict; enactment; injunction; institute; judicial decision; legislation; measure; ordinance; precept; prescript; prescription; regulation; requirement; rule; ruling; statute

2. bar (noun) bar; legal profession

3. Christian scriptures (noun) bible; Christian scriptures; gospel; old and new testaments; revelation; scripture; the good book; word of god

4. law enforcement (noun) city police; constabulary; district attorney; judge; law enforcement; police; public safety; sheriff; state police

5. legislature (noun) charter; civil law; code; constitution; criminal law; law of the press; legislature; probate law; public law; statute law

6. principle (noun) axiom; cause; foundation; fundamental; maxim; origin; precept; principium; principle; rule of action; source; standard; theorem; ultimate cause; universal

7. study of law (noun) equity; jurisprudence; law school; legal practice; legal precedent; legal science; legalism; study of law

8. the courts (noun) due process; judicature; judicial procedure; legal process; the authorities; the courts; the legal authorities; the police; writ of habeas corpus

English-Russian base dictionary > law
14 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
15 Telford, Thomas

SUBJECT AREA: Canals, Civil engineering

[br]

b. 9 August 1757 Glendinning, Dumfriesshire, Scotland

d. 2 September 1834 London, England.

[br]

Scottish civil engineer.

[br]

Telford was the son of a shepherd, who died when the boy was in his first year. Brought up by his mother, Janet Jackson, he attended the parish school at Westerkirk. He was apprenticed to a stonemason in Lochmaben and to another in Langholm. In 1780 he walked from Eskdale to Edinburgh and in 1872 rode to London on a horse that he was to deliver there. He worked for Sir William Chambers as a mason on Somerset House, then on the Eskdale house of Sir James Johnstone. In 1783–4 he worked on the new Commissioner's House and other buildings at Portsmouth dockyard.

In late 1786 Telford was appointed County Surveyor for Shropshire and moved to Shrewsbury Castle, with work initially on the new infirmary and County Gaol. He designed the church of St Mary Magdalene, Bridgnorth, and also the church at Madley. Telford built his first bridge in 1790–2 at Montford; between 1790 and 1796 he built forty-five road bridges in Shropshire, including Buildwas Bridge. In September 1793 he was appointed general agent, engineer and architect to the Ellesmere Canal, which was to connect the Mersey and Dee rivers with the Severn at Shrewsbury; William Jessop was Principal Engineer. This work included the Pont Cysyllte aqueduct, a 1,000 ft (305 m) long cast-iron trough 127 ft (39 m) above ground level, which entailed an on-site ironworks and took ten years to complete; the aqueduct is still in use today. In 1800 Telford put forward a plan for a new London Bridge with a single cast-iron arch with a span of 600 ft (183 m) but this was not built.

In 1801 Telford was appointed engineer to the British Fisheries Society "to report on Highland Communications" in Scotland where, over the following eighteen years, 920 miles (1,480 km) of new roads were built, 280 miles (450 km) of the old military roads were realigned and rebuilt, over 1,000 bridges were constructed and much harbour work done, all under Telford's direction. A further 180 miles (290 km) of new roads were also constructed in the Lowlands of Scotland. From 1804 to 1822 he was also engaged on the construction of the Caledonian Canal: 119 miles (191 km) in all, 58 miles (93 km) being sea loch, 38 miles (61 km) being Lochs Lochy, Oich and Ness, 23 miles (37 km) having to be cut.

In 1808 he was invited by King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden to assist Count Baltzar von Platen in the survey and construction of a canal between the North Sea and the Baltic. Telford surveyed the 114 mile (183 km) route in six weeks; 53 miles (85 km) of new canal were to be cut. Soon after the plans for the canal were completed, the King of Sweden created him a Knight of the Order of Vasa, an honour that he would have liked to have declined. At one time some 60,000 soldiers and seamen were engaged on the work, Telford supplying supervisors, machinery—including an 8 hp steam dredger from the Donkin works and machinery for two small paddle boats—and ironwork for some of the locks. Under his direction an ironworks was set up at Motala, the foundation of an important Swedish industrial concern which is still flourishing today. The Gotha Canal was opened in September 1832.

In 1811 Telford was asked to make recommendations for the improvement of the Shrewsbury to Holyhead section of the London-Holyhead road, and in 1815 he was asked to survey the whole route from London for a Parliamentary Committee. Construction of his new road took fifteen years, apart from the bridges at Conway and over the Menai Straits, both suspension bridges by Telford and opened in 1826. The Menai bridge had a span of 579 ft (176 m), the roadway being 153 ft (47 m) above the water level.

In 1817 Telford was appointed Engineer to the Exchequer Loan Commission, a body set up to make capital loans for deserving projects in the hard times that followed after the peace of Waterloo. In 1820 he became the first President of the Engineers Institute, which gained its Royal Charter in 1828 to become the Institution of Civil Engineers. He was appointed Engineer to the St Katharine's Dock Company during its construction from 1825 to 1828, and was consulted on several early railway projects including the Liverpool and Manchester as well as a number of canal works in the Midlands including the new Harecastle tunnel, 3,000 ft (914 m) long.

Telford led a largely itinerant life, living in hotels and lodgings, acquiring his own house for the first time in 1821, 24 Abingdon Street, Westminster, which was partly used as a school for young civil engineers. He died there in 1834, after suffering in his later years from the isolation of deafness. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.

[br]

Principal Honours and Distinctions

FRSE 1803. Knight of the Order of Vasa, Sweden 1808. FRS 1827. First President, Engineers Insitute 1820.

Further Reading

L.T.C.Rolt, 1979, Thomas Telford, London: Penguin.

C.Hadfield, 1993, Thomas Telford's Temptation, London: M. \& M.Baldwin.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Telford, Thomas
16 air

air n
воздух
adjustable air outlet
регулируемый насадок индивидуальной вентиляции
aerodrome air picture
воздушная обстановка в зоне аэродрома
Aerodromes, Air Routes and Ground Aids Section
Секция аэродромов, воздушных трасс и наземных средств
(ИКАО) African Air Tariff Conference
Африканская конференция по авиационным тарифам
aids to air navigation
навигационные средства
air agency
авиационное агентство
air agreement
авиационное соглашение
air alert warning
сигнализация аварийной обстановки в полете
air base
база для обслуживания полетов
air base group
бригада наземного обслуживания
air bearing
воздушная опора
air bearing gyroscope
гироскоп с воздушной опорой осей
air bill
полетный лист
air blast
воздушная ударная волна
air bleed
отбор воздуха
air bleed hole
окно отбора воздуха
air bleed port
отверстие отбора воздуха
air bleed system
система отбора воздуха
(от компрессора) air borne system
бортовая система
air bottle cart
тележка с баллонами сжатого воздуха
air brake system
система воздушных тормозов
air bridge
телескопический трап
air cargo
груз для воздушной перевозки
air carriage
воздушная перевозка
air carriage contract
контракт на воздушную перевозку
air carrier
воздушный перевозчик
air carrier tariff
тарифная ставка, установленная авиаперевозчиком
Air Carrier Tariffs Section
Секция тарифов воздушных перевозчиков
(ИКАО) air charging connection
штуцер зарядки воздухом
air charter carrier
чартерный авиаперевозчик
air circulation
циркуляция воздуха
air clutter
помехи от авиационных средств связи
air codes
воздушный кодекс
air collector
воздушный коллектор
air commerce
авиационная коммерческая деятельность
air communication
воздушное сообщение
air communication center
центр обеспечения воздушной связи
air communicator
оператор авиационной связи
air compass swinging
списание девиации компаса в полете
air conditioning
кондиционирование воздуха
air conditioning system
система кондиционирования воздуха
(в кабине воздушного судна) air conflict search
исследование конфликтной ситуации в воздушном движении
air control
диспетчерское обслуживание воздушного пространства
air conveyance
воздушная перевозка
air cooler
воздушный радиатор
air cooling
воздушное охлаждение
air cooling system
система воздушного охлаждения
air corridor
воздушный коридор
air crash
авиационное происшествие
air cushion
воздушная подушка
air cushion effect
эффект воздушной подушки
air damper
пневматический амортизатор
air data
данные о результатах испытания в воздухе
air data computer
вычислитель воздушных сигналов
air data computer system
система сбора воздушных сигналов
air deficiency
недостаток воздуха
air delivery pipe
воздуховод
air density
плотность воздуха
air diluter
автомат подсоса воздуха
air display
экран изображения воздушной обстановки
air distortion
возмущение воздушного потока
air distress communication
аварийная связь с воздушным судном
air drag
сопротивление воздуха
air eddy
завихрение воздуха
air entity
авиационная организация
air fare
тариф на воздушную перевозку пассажира
air feeder
патрубок подвода воздуха
air ferry route
маршрут перегонки воздушных судов
air filter
воздушный фильтр
air flap
воздушная заслонка
air fleet
воздушный флот
air flow
воздушный поток
air flow characteristic
характеристика расхода воздуха
air flow duct
воздушный тракт
air flow interaction
взаимодействие воздушных потоков
air flow mixer
смеситель потоков воздуха
air flow rate
степень расхода воздуха
air freight
авиационный груз
air freight bill
грузовая авианакладная
air freighter
грузовое воздушное судно
air freight forwarder
агентство по отправке грузов воздушным транспортом
air freight lift
перевозка грузов по воздуху
air freight terminal
грузовой комплекс аэропорта
air gate
воздушные ворота
air grill
решетка для забора воздуха
air gust
порыв воздушной массы
air heater
обогреватель воздуха
air humidifying system
система увлажнения воздуха
air induction system
система забора воздуха
air industry
авиационная промышленность
air inlet
бортовой приемник статического давления
air inlet duct
входное устройство
air inlet screen
сетчатый фильтр воздухоприемника
air inlet section
входное воздушное устройство
(двигателя) air intake
воздухозаборник
air intake blade
заглушка воздухозаборника
air intake diffuser
диффузор воздухозаборника
air intake duct
канал воздухозаборника
air intake duct heating
обогрев канала воздухозаборника
air intake fixed lip
нерегулируемая кромка воздухозаборника
air intake hazard area
опасная зона перед воздухозаборником
air intake heater
обогреватель воздухозаборника
air intake pressure
давление на входе в воздухозаборник
air intake spike
конус воздухозаборника
(двигателя) air intake spike control
управление конусом воздухозаборником
air intake surge
помпаж в воздухозаборнике
air intake throat
минимальное проходное сечение воздухозаборника
air intake wedge
клин воздухозаборника
air intrusion
нарушение воздушного пространства
air labyrinth seal ring
кольцо воздушного лабиринтного уплотнения
air lane
воздушная трасса
air law
воздушное право
Air laws regulations
Воздушный кодекс
air leg
участок маршрута полета
air legislation
авиационное законодательство
air line
воздушная линия
Air Line Pilot's
Ассоциация пилотов гражданской авиации
air lock
воздушная пробка
air loitering
воздушное барражирование
air mail
воздушная почта
air manifold
воздушный коллектор
air manifold pipe
воздушный коллектор
air marker
аэронавигационный маркер
air mass
воздушная масса
air medicine
авиационная медицина
air meter
расходомер воздуха
air miss
сближение в полете
air mixture control
регулирование топливовоздушной смеси
air movement
воздушная перевозка
air navigation
аэронавигация
air navigation agreement
аэронавигационное соглашение
Air Navigation Bureau
Аэронавигационное управление
air navigation charge
аэронавигационный сбор
air navigation chart
аэронавигационная карта
Air Navigation Commission
Аэронавигационная комиссия
Air Navigation Committee
Аэронавигационный комитет
air navigation computer
аэронавигационный вычислитель
Air Navigation Conference
Аэронавигационная конференция
air navigation facilities
аэронавигационные средства
air navigation plan
аэронавигационный план
air navigation protractor
аэронавигационный транспортир
air navigation region
район аэронавигации
air navigation school
штурманская школа
air navigation service
аэронавигационное обслуживание
air navigation table
таблица аэронавигационных расчетов
air navigator
штурман
air observation
наблюдение за воздушным пространством
air obstacle
препятствие на пути полета
air operation for hire
воздушная перевозка по найму
air operation for remuneration
воздушная перевозка за плату
Air Passenger Tariff
сборник пассажирских тарифов на воздушную перевозку
air path
воздушная трасса
air patrol zone
зона воздушного барражирования
air patter
авиационная фразеология
air pilotage
самолетовождение
air piracy
воздушное пиратство
air plan
план развития воздушных перевозок
air plot
схема воздушной обстановки
air pocket
воздушная яма
air pollution
загрязнение атмосферы
air position
положение в воздушном пространстве
air position indicator
указатель местоположения в полете
air pressure
давление воздуха
air pressure valve
воздушный редуктор
air pressurization system
система наддува
(кабины) air priority
очередность полетов
air refuelling
дозаправка топливом в полете
air release hose
шланг для стравливания воздуха
air report
донесение с борта
air rescue kit
комплект аварийно-спасательного оборудования
air rote limitations
ограничения на воздушных трассах
air route
воздушная трасса
air route chart
маршрутная карта
air route forecast
прогноз по маршруту
air route network
сеть воздушных трасс
air safety
безопасность воздушного движения
air safety rules
инструкция по обеспечению безопасности полетов
air seal
воздушное уплотнение
air search
поиск с воздуха
air service
авиаперевозки
air sextant
авиационный секстант
air show
авиационная выставка
air shuttle
челночные авиаперевозки
air side
воздушная зона
air situation
воздушная обстановка
air situation display
дисплей индикации воздушной обстановки
air sounding
зондирование атмосферы
air spacing
распределение воздушного пространства
(для обеспечения контроля полетов) air stability
устойчивость воздушной массы
air stairs
авиационный трап
air starter
воздушный стартер
air starting
запуск в воздухе
air starting system
воздушная система запуска двигателей
air strip
ВПП
air supremacy
господство в воздухе
air surveillance system
система воздушного наблюдения
air survey
наблюдение с воздуха
air target
воздушная цель
air target indication
индикация воздушных целей
air tariff clause
статья об авиационных тарифах
air taxi
воздушное такси
air taxiing
руление по воздуху
air ticket portion
купон авиационного билета
air tire
пневматическая шина
air track
воздушная трасса
air traffic
воздушное движение
air traffic audio simulation system
аудиовизуальная система имитации воздушного движения
(для тренажеров) air traffic control
1. ответчик системы УВД
2. управление воздушным движением Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee
Консультативный комитет по управлению воздушным движением
air traffic control area
зона управления воздушным движением
air traffic control boundary
граница зоны управления воздушным движением
air traffic control center
диспетчерский центр управления воздушным движением
air traffic control clearance
разрешение службы управления воздушным движением
air traffic controller
диспетчер службы управления воздушным движением
air traffic control loop
цикл управления воздушным движением
air traffic control procedures
правила управления воздушным движением
air traffic control radar
радиолокатор управления воздушным движением
air traffic control routing
прокладка маршрута полета согласно указанию службы управления движением
air traffic control service
служба управления воздушным движением
air traffic control system
система управления воздушным движением
air traffic control unit
пункт управления воздушным движением
air traffic convention
конвенция по управлению воздушным движением
air traffic density
плотность воздушного движения
air traffic environment
условия выполнения воздушных перевозок
air traffic flow management
управление потоком воздушного движения
air traffic guide
наставление по управлению воздушным движением
air traffic hub
узловой район воздушного движения
air traffic pattern
схема воздушного движения
air traffic performance
объем воздушных перевозок
air traffic procedures
правила воздушного движения
air traffic school
школа подготовки специалистов по управлению воздушным движением
air traffic service
служба воздушного движения
air traffic service chart
схема обслуживания воздушного движения
air traffic service route
маршрут, обслуживаемый службой воздушного движения
air traffic services expert
эксперт по обслуживанию воздушного движения
air traffic services procedures
правила обслуживания воздушного движения
air traffic services unit
пункт обслуживания воздушного движения
air transport
воздушный транспорт
air Transport
Ассоциация воздушного транспорта США
air transport agreement
соглашение о воздушном сообщении
Air Transportation Board
Комитет по воздушным перевозкам
Air Transport Bureau
Авиатранспортное управление
Air Transport Committee
Комитет по воздушным перевозкам
air transport enterprise
авиатранспортное предприятие
air transport facilitation
уменьшение ограничений в воздушных перевозках
air transport insurance
страхование авиаперевозок
air transport movement table
график движения воздушного транспорта
air transport operations
авиатранспортные перевозки
air transport pilot
свидетельство пилота транспортной авиации
air transport service
авиаперевозки
Air Transport Studies Section
Секция исследования воздушного транспорта
(ИКАО) air transport wing
авиатранспортное подразделение
air travel
воздушное путешествие
air travel card
маршрутный лист воздушного путешествия
air travel plan
график воздушного путешествия
air trial
испытание в воздухе
air trip
воздушное путешествие
air turbine
воздушная турбина
air turbulence
воздушная турбулентность
air unit
авиационное подразделение
air unworthiness
непригодность к летной эксплуатации
air valve
воздушный клапан
air velocity
скорость движения воздушной массы
air wave
воздушная волна
air waybill
авиагрузовая накладная
airways and air communications service
служба воздушных сообщений
alternate air route
запасной маршрут полета
ambient air
окружающий воздух
ambient air temperature
температура окружающего воздуха
annular air intake
кольцевой воздухозаборник
ascending air
восходящий поток воздуха
ball-type air outlet
насадок шарового типа индивидуальной вентиляции
bearing air seal
воздушное уплотнение опоры
bifurcated air bypass duct
раздвоенный воздушный тракт
bifurcated air intake
воздухозаборник, раздвоенный на выходе
bird strike to an air craft
столкновение птиц с воздушным судном
bleed air
стравливать воздушную пробку
bleed air receiver
ресивер отбора воздуха
bleed off air
перепускать воздух
boundary-layer air
воздух в пограничном слое
breather air
воздух суфлирования
bring to rest air
затормаживать воздушный поток
center of air pressure
центр аэродинамического давления
Central Agency of Air Service
Главное агентство воздушных сообщений
certificated air carrier
зарегистрированный авиаперевозчик
civil air operations
полеты гражданских воздушных судов
civil air regulations
руководство по полетам воздушных судов гражданской авиации
civil air transport
гражданский воздушный транспорт
clear air turbulence
турбулентность в атмосфере без облаков
cold air
холодный фронт воздуха
commercial air carrier
коммерческий авиаперевозчик
commercial air transport
коммерческий воздушный транспорт
commercial air transportation
коммерческая воздушная перевозка
commercial air transport operations
коммерческие воздушные перевозки
commuter air carrier
авиаперевозчик на короткие расстояния
compressor air flow duct
второй контур
compressor-bleed air
воздух, отбираемый от компрессора
conditioned air emergency valve
аварийный клапан сброса давления в системе кондиционирования
continuous air bleed
постоянный отбор воздуха
cooling air outlet tube
патрубок отвода охлаждающего воздуха
dead air
невозмущенный воздух
determine air in a system
устанавливать наличие воздушной пробки в системе
discharge air overboard
отводить воздух в атмосферу
dominant air mode
основной режим воздушного пространства
duct air temperature
температура воздуха в трубопроводе
earth air strip
грунтовая ВПП
effective air path
действующая воздушная трасса
enforce rules of the air
обеспечивать соблюдение правил полетов
engine air bleed flange
фланец отбора воздуха от двигателя
European Air carries Assembly
Ассамблея европейских авиаперевозчиков
European Air Navigation Planning Group
Европейская группа аэронавигационного планирования
first freedom of the air
первая степень свободы воздуха
fixed-geometry air intake
нерегулируемый воздухозаборник
fixed-lip air intake
воздухозаборник с фиксированной передней кромкой
flame tube air hole
окно подвода воздуха к жаровой трубе
flow of air traffic
поток воздушного движения
forced air cooling
принудительное охлаждение
freedom of the air
степень свободы воздуха
gain the air supremacy
завоевывать господство в воздухе
General Department of International Air Services of Aeroflot
Центральное управление международных воздушных сообщений гражданской авиации
generator air inlet
воздухозаборник обдува генератора
ground air starting unit
аэродромная установка для запуска
high density air traffic
интенсивное воздушное движение
identify the aerodrome from the air
опознавать аэродром с воздуха
indicate the location from the air
определять местоположение с воздуха
intermodal air carriage
смешанная воздушная перевозка
International Air Carrier
Международная ассоциация авиаперевозчиков
international air route
международная авиационная трасса
International Air Transport
Международная ассоциация воздушного транспорта
International commission for Air Navigation
Международная комиссия по аэронавигации
International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations
Международная федерация ассоциаций линейных пилотов
International Federation of Air Traffic Controllers' Associations
Международная федерация ассоциаций авиадиспетчеров
intersection of air routes
пересечение воздушных трасс
light air
разреженный воздух
long-range air navigation system
система дальней радионавигации
low air area
нижнее воздушное пространство
low air route
маршрут нижнего воздушного пространства
main air
воздух, проходящий через первый контур
maintenance-free air bearing
износостойкий воздушный подшипник
mass air flow
массовый расход воздуха
mid air collision control
предупреждение столкновений в воздухе
mixing air
смесительный воздух
multishock air intake
многоскачковый воздухозаборник
National Air Carrier
Ассоциация воздушных перевозчиков
normal air
стандартная атмосфера
nose air intake
носовой воздухозаборник
open air
наружный воздух
outside air temperature
температура наружного воздуха
outside air temperature indicator
указатель температуры наружного воздуха
overflow air traffic
перегружать воздушное движение
pipeline to air intake
трубопровод подвода воздуха к воздухозаборнику
practical air navigation
практическая аэронавигация
private air strip
частная ВПП
Procedures for Air Navigation Services
Правила аэронавигационного обслуживания
prognostic upper air chart
карта прогнозов состояния верхних слоев атмосферы
ram air
заторможенный поток воздуха
ram air assembly
заборник воздуха для надува топливных баков от скоростного напора
ram air cooling
охлаждение набегающим потоком воздуха
ram air temperature
температура набегающего потока воздуха
rarefied air
разреженный воздух
regional air navigation
региональная аэронавигация
regional air navigation meeting
региональное аэронавигационное совещание
(ИКАО) release air
стравливать давление воздуха
retractable air steps
выдвижная бортовая лестница
rough air
воздух в турбулентном состоянии
rough air mechanism
механизм для создания условий полета в нестабильной атмосфере
route air navigation facilities
маршрутные аэронавигационные средства
rules of the air
правила полетов
scheduled air service
регулярные воздушные перевозки
sealing air annulus
кольцевой канал подвода воздуха к лабиринтному управления
sealing air passage
канал подвода воздуха к лабиринтному уплотнению
second freedom of the air
вторая степень свободы воздуха
shipment by air
транспортировка по воздуху
stable air
устойчивый воздушный поток
standard air
стандартная атмосфера
static air temperature
температура возмущенной воздушной массы
still air
нулевой ветер
tactical air navigation
тактическая аэронавигация
tactical air navigation facilities
тактические аэронавигационные средства
tactical air navigation system
система ближней аэронавигации
tap air from the compressor
отбирать воздух от компрессора
throttle air
воздушный дроссель
through air service
прямое воздушное сообщение
time in the air
налет часов
total air temperature
полная температура потока
two-dimensional air intake
двухмерный воздухозаборник
two-shock air intake
двухскачковый воздухозаборник
undisturbed air
невозмущенная атмосфера
unifired air cargo tariff
единая авиационная грузовая тарифная ставка
unifired air passenger tariff
единая авиационная пассажирская тарифная ставка
universal air travel plan
программа организации авиационных путешествий
upper air
верхнее воздушное пространство
upper air area
верхнее воздушное пространство
upper air route
маршрут верхнего воздушного пространства
upper air temperature
температура верхних слоев атмосферы
variable lip air intake
воздухозаборник с регулируемой передней кромкой
vent air
дренажировать
vent air inlet
воздухозаборник
ventilating air outlet
насадок индивидуальной вентиляции

English-Russian aviation dictionary > air
17 грамота

жен.
1) только ед. reading and writing это для меня китайская грамота разг. ≈ it's Greek to me
2) (official) document;
deed отзывные грамоты ратификационная грамота почетная грамота верительная грамота жалованная грамота ∙ филькина грамота тарабарская грамота

грамот|а - ж.
1. reading and writing;
учиться ~е learn* to read and write;

2. (документ) deed;
филькина ~ ирон. (о документе) a scrap of paper;
охранная ~ charter of immunity;
похвальная ~ (school) certificate of good work and conduct;
почётная ~ (honorary) diploma;
ратификационная ~ дип. instrument of ratification;
верительные ~ы дип. credentials;
~но
3. grammatically;
писать ~но write* grammatically;

4. (умело) competently, skilfully;
~ность ж.
5. literacy;

6. (осведомлённость) competence, expertise, skilfulness;
политическая ~ность political knowledge;
~ный
7. (умеющий читать и писать) literate;

8. (не содержащий грамматических ошибок) grammatical;

9. (умелый, осведомлённый) competent, skilled, knowledgeable.

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > грамота
18 diploma

dɪˈpləumə
1. сущ.;
мн. - diplomas, diplomata
1) диплом;
свидетельство, письменное удостоверение, аттестат to award, confer, present a diploma ≈ выдавать диплом a college diploma ≈ диплом колледжа a high-school diploma ≈ диплом о получении высшего образования
2) обыкн. ист. государственная бумага, официальный документ Syn: charter
1.
2. гл. выдавать диплом (обыкн. употребляется в форме прич. прош. вр. diplomaed) (pl тж. -ta) диплом - teacher's * диплом учителя - * student (студент) -дипломник - * in architecture диплом архитектора - * in education диплом педагога (американизм) аттестат (об окончании средней школы) официальный или исторический документ жалованная грамота( редкое) выдавать диплом, дипломировать diploma аттестат ~ (обыкн. p. p.) выдавать диплом ~ диплом;
свидетельство;
diploma in architecture диплом архитектора ~ диплом ~ официальный документ ~ диплом;
свидетельство;
diploma in architecture диплом архитектора

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > diploma
19 tax

tæks
1. сущ.
1) (государственный) налог;
пошлина, сбор to levy a tax on ≈ облагать( кого-л., что-л.) налогом direct taxes ≈ прямые налоги admissions tax ≈ налог на зрелищные предприятия classified tax ≈ дифференцированный налог (система с разной ставкой налогообложения в зависимости от вида собственности) delinquent tax ≈ налоги, не выплаченные в срок earmarked tax ≈ адресный налог (сборы от него должны быть использованы на определенные цели) franchise tax ≈ франшизный налог (налог штата на зарегистрированную в нем корпорацию за право заниматься франшизным бизнесом) heavy tax ≈ большой налог income tax ≈ подоходный налог indirect taxes ≈ косвенные налоги individual income tax ≈ личный подоходный налог nuisance tax ≈ небольшой налог (выплачивается по частям) payroll tax ≈ налог на заработную плату pollution tax ≈ 'налог на загрязнение' (налагаемый на компанию, если ее производственная деятельность загрязняет окружающую среду) sales tax ≈ налог с оборота school tax ≈ школьный налог (налог, которым облагаются жители округа;
собранные средства идут на содержание школ) sin tax ≈ налог на табак, алкогольные напитки, азартные игры и т. п. single tax ≈ единый земельный налог state income tax ≈ подоходный налог штата windfall profit tax ≈ налог на сверхприбыль tax avoidance ≈ уменьшение в результате перерасчета суммы налога tax exile ≈ эмиграция из-за налогов, бегство от налогов
2) бремя, гнет, груз, испытание, напряжение Syn: burden, load
2. гл.
1) а) облагать налогом;
подвергать налоговому обложению б) юр. таксировать, определять размер убытков, штрафа, судебных издержек Syn: assess, impose, levy
2) чрезмерно напрягать, утомлять;
подвергать испытанию (память, свои силы и т. п.) she taxes my patience ≈ она испытывает мое терпение
3) делать выговор, отчитывать( кого-л.) ;
обвинять, осуждать( with) to tax smb. with ingratitude ≈ упрекать кого-л. в неблагодарности. to tax smb. with trickery ≈ обвинить кого-л. в мошенничестве.
4) амер.;
разг. спрашивать или назначать цену;
устанавливать или брать плату What will you tax me? ≈ Сколько это будет (мне) стоить? Syn: charge налог, сбор;
пошлина - national *es государственные налоги - local *es местные сборы - direct *es прямые налоги - income * подоходный налог - single * единый земельный налог - inheritance * налог на наследство - profits * налоги на прибыли - corporation * налог на корпорацию - purchase * торговая пошлина - inspector of *es налоговый или финансовый инспектор - collector of *es = tax-collector - free of * сборщик налогов - after * после удержания налога;
за вычетом налога, "чистый" - * assessment налогообложение - * revenue поступление в казну от налогов - * benefit выигрыш на налогах - * incentives налоговые льготы (для поощрения, капиталовложений) - * rates величина налога - * rates on the unemployed налоги на безработных - * сuts сокращение налогов - to lower * rates уменьшить налоги - to impose a * on smb., smth. облагать кого-л., что-л. налогом - to collect *es взимать налоги;
собирать пошлину - to pay *es платить налоги - to pay a hundred dollars in *es заплатить налог в сумме ста долларов издержки - court *es судебные издержки бремя, испытание;
чрезмерное требование - this is a * on her strenght это подрывает ее силы - this was a * on his patience ему пришлось запастись терпением - this was a * on my time это отняло у меня уйму времени (американизм) (разговорное) размер счета (американизм) членские взносы( в обществе, профсоюзе и т. п.) облагать налогом;
подвергать обложению (налогом) - to * incomes брать налог с доходов, подвергать доходы налогообложению - to be heavily *ed нести тяжелое налоговое бремя (юридическое) таксировать, определять или устанавливать размер (штрафа, издержек, убытков) - to * the costs of an action определять размер судебных издержек испытывать, подвергать испытанию - to * smb.'s patience испытывать чье-л. терпение - to * one's powers to the utmost требовать максимального напряжения сил - it *es one's memory надо напрячь память делать выговор, выговаривать( кому-л. за что-л.) ;
упрекать - to * smb. with rudeness упрекать кого-л. в грубости обвинять, осуждать - to * smb. with trickery обвинить кого-л. в мошенничестве - to * smb. with a failure возложить на кого-л. ответственность за провал( американизм) (разговорное) назначать или спрашивать цену;
брать плату - what will you * me? сколько вы с меня возьмете? (американизм) взимать членские взносы (в обществе, профсоюзе) accrued ~ накопившаяся задолженность по выплате налогов achieve a ~ saving добиваться экономии за счет уменьшения налоговых платежей ad valorem ~ налог на стоимость additional income ~ дополнительный подоходный налог additional ~ дополнительный налог additional value for ~ purposes добавленная стоимость для налогообложения advance corporation ~ (ACT) авансовый налог с корпорации advance ~ предварительное определение судебных издержек after ~ после удержания налога airport ~ налог с пассажиров, отбывающих за границу из данного аэропорта allowance against ~ налоговая льгота alternative minimum ~ (AMT) минимальный альтернативный налог amusement ~ налог на развлечения (на билеты в кино, театры и т.п.) amusement ~ налог на развлечения attract income ~ взимать подоходный налог basic rate income ~ базисная ставка подоходного налога basic rate of ~ базисная налоговая ставка beverage ~ налог на продажу напитков business ~ налог на предпринимателя business ~ налог на предприятие business ~ налог на торгово-промышленное предприятие calculated income ~ вычисленный подоходный налог capital gains ~ налог на доход от прироста капитала capital gains ~ налог на доходы от прироста капитала capital gains ~ налог на увеличение рыночной стоимости капитала capital gains ~ on shares налог на доход от прироста капитала от акций capital ~ налог на капитал capital transfer ~ налог на перевод капитала capital yields ~ налог на доход от капитала car ~ налог на автомобиль carbon dioxide ~ налог на выбросы в атмосферу диоксида углерода charge ~ облагать налогом charter ~ чартерный налог church ~ церковный налог city ~ муниципальный налог climate improvement ~ налог на выбросы в атмосферу диоксида углерода commercial earnings ~ налог на доходы от торговли commercial enterprise subject to value-added ~ торговое предприятие, облагаемое налогом на добавленную стоимость community ~ местный налог company ~ налог на доходы компании company ~ налог с доходов компании consumption ~ налог на потребление consumption ~ налог потребления contingent ~ скрытый налог corporate income ~ налог с доходов корпорации corporate income ~ подоходный налог корпорации corporate profits ~ налог на прибыли корпорации corporate ~ налог с доходов компаний или корпораций corporate ~ налог с доходов корпорации corporation ~ налог на корпорацию county ~ муниципальный налог coupon ~ купонный налог current ~ on wealth действующий налог на имущество death ~ налог на наследство deduct ~ удерживать налоги deferred income ~ налог на доход будущего периода deferred ~ отсроченный налог delinquent ~ неуплаченный налог development ~ налог на строительство direct ~ прямой налог ~ (государственный) налог;
пошлина;
сбор;
direct (indirect) taxes прямые (косвенные) налоги dividend ~ налог на дивиденды due ~ причитающийся налог emergency ~ чрезвычайный налог entrance ~ вступительный налог equalization ~ уравнительный налог equalizing ~ равномерное распределение налогов estate ~ налог на наследство estate ~ налог на передачу имущества по наследству excise ~ акциз excise ~ акцизный налог excise ~ акцизный сбор expenditure ~ налог на расходы extraordinary ~ особый налог federal ~ федеральный налог final ~ окончательный размер налога flat-rate ~ налог, взимаемый по единой ставке flat-rate ~ пропорциональный налог for ~ purposes в целях налогообложения for ~ reasons по причинам налогообложения franchise ~ налог на монопольные права и привилегии full-year ~ сумма налогов за год general consumption ~ налог на все виды потребления gift ~ налог на дарение gift ~ налог на дарения (США) graduated income ~ прогрессивный подоходный налог graduated ~ прогрессивный налог head ~ налог. подушный налог heavy ~ большой, обременительный налог;
nuisance tax амер. небольшой налог, выплачиваемый по частям hidden ~ налог. скрытый налог hydrocarbon ~ налог. налог за выбросы углеводородов в окружающую среду I cannot ~ my memory не могу вспомнить;
to tax (smb.'s) patience испытывать (чье-л.) терпение impose a ~ облагать налогом income ~ подоходный налог individual income ~ персональный подоходный налог industrial ~ промышленный налог inheritance ~ налог на наследство initial car ~ регистрационный налог на автомобиль inland revenue ~ государственный налог input ~ налог на производственные затраты input value-added ~ налог на добавленную стоимость insurance ~ налог на страхование interest equalization ~ уравнительный налог на доход от процентов internal revenue ~ налог на внутренние доходы investment income ~ подоходный налог на капиталовложения investment ~ налог на капиталовложения ~ напряжение, бремя, испытание;
it is a great tax on my time это требует от меня слишком много времени land ~ земельный налог land ~ налог на земельную собственность land transfer ~ налог на перевод за границу платежей за землю land value ~ налог на стоимость земельных участков levy a ~ облагать налогом single ~ единый земельный налог;
to levy a tax (on smb., smth.) облагать (кого-л., что-л.) налогом local income ~ местный подоходный налог local income ~ муниципальный подоходный налог local property ~ местный налог на недвижимое имущество local property ~ местный поимущественный налог local ~ местный налог local ~ муниципальный налог lump sum ~ аккордный налог lump sum ~ налог на совокупную сумму доходов motor vehicle ~ налог на автомобиль multistage ~ многоступенчатый налог municipal ~ муниципальный налог national income ~ государственный подоходный налог national ~ государственный налог national ~ федеральный налог negative income ~ отрицательный подоходный налог (лица с доходом ниже установленного уровня и имеющие семью освобождаются от налога и пучают финансовую помощь от налоговой системы) negative income ~ отрицательный подоходный налог net wealth ~ налог на имущество, исключая долги net worth ~ налог на собственность nonpersonal ~ налог на недвижимое имущество nonrecurring ~ единовременный налог nonrefundable purchase ~ невозмещаемый налог на покупки heavy ~ большой, обременительный налог;
nuisance tax амер. небольшой налог, выплачиваемый по частям output ~ налог на объем производства overall ~ effect эффект полного налогообложения overpaid ~ переплаченный налог pay-as-you-earn ~ налог, взимаемый по мере поступления доходов pay-as-you-earn ~ (PAYE ~) подоходный налог, автоматически вычитаемый из заработной платы payroll ~ налог на заработную плату penalty ~ пеня personal income ~ личный подоходный налог personal property ~ личный поимущественный налог personal property ~ налог на личное имущество personal ~ личный подоходный налог personal ~ налог на движимое имущество personal ~ подушный налог petrol ~ налог на нефть petroleum revenue ~ (PRT) налог на доход от продажи нефти poll ~ подушный налог price excluding ~ цена без учета налога profits ~ налог на прибыли progressive ~ прогрессивный налог property transfer ~ налог на передачу правового титула proportional ~ пропорциональный налог provisional ~ временная налоговая ставка raw materials ~ налог на сырье real estate ~ налог на недвижимость registration ~ сбор за регистрацию regressive ~ регрессивный налог relief from ~ освобождение от уплаты налога relief from ~ скидка с налога remit ~ освобождать от уплаты налога residual ~ остаточный налог retail sales ~ налог с розничного оборота retained ~ удержанный налог sales ~ налог на доходы от продаж sales ~ налог на продажи sales ~ налог с оборота sales ~ торговый сбор seamen's income ~ подоходный налог с моряков seamen's ~ налогообложение моряков single ~ единый земельный налог;
to levy a tax (on smb., smth.) облагать (кого-л., что-л.) налогом single ~ единый налог specific ~ индивидуально определенный налог specific ~ специальный налог state ~ государственный налог substantive ~ law материальное налоговое законодательство succession ~ налог на наследуемую недвижимость supplementary ~ дополнительный налог surplus ~ чрезмерный налог tax взимать членские взносы ~ делать выговор, отчитывать (кого-л.) ;
обвинять, осуждать (with) ~ назначать цену ~ (государственный) налог;
пошлина;
сбор;
direct (indirect) taxes прямые (косвенные) налоги ~ налог ~ напряжение, бремя, испытание;
it is a great tax on my time это требует от меня слишком много времени ~ облагать налогом;
таксировать ~ облагать налогом ~ облагать пошлиной ~ обложение ~ юр. определять размер убытков (штрафа и т. п.) ;
определять размер судебных издержек ~ пошлина ~ размер счета ~ сбор ~ амер. разг. спрашивать, назначать цену;
what will you tax me? сколько это будет (мне) стоить? ~ таксировать, определять размер (о судебных издержках) ~ членские взносы ~ чрезмерно напрягать, подвергать испытанию;
утомлять;
the work taxes my powers эта работа слишком тяжела для меня ~ in arrears просрочка уплаты налога ~ on capital налог на капитал ~ on capital accretion налог на прирост стоимости капитала ~ on corporate net wealth налог на нетто-активы корпорации ~ on distributions налог на оптовую торговлю ~ on energy налог на электроэнергию ~ on funds налог на капитал ~ on income подоходный налог ~ on income from capital налог на доход с капитала ~ on industry налог на промышленное производство ~ on land value increment налог на прирост стоимости земли ~ on personal net wealth налог на личные нетто-активы ~ on real rate of return налог на реальную ставку прибыли ~ on the conveyance of property налог на передачу права собственности ~ on the transfer of property налог на передачу права собственности ~ on unearned income налог на непроизводственный доход ~ on unearned income налог на нетрудовой доход ~ on unearned income налог на рентный доход ~ on value added налог на добавленную стоимость ~ on wealth налог на имущество ~ on yield of pension scheme assets налог на доход от капитала, вложенного в фонд пенсионного обеспечения I cannot ~ my memory не могу вспомнить;
to tax (smb.'s) patience испытывать (чье-л.) терпение trade ~ налог на торговую деятельность trade ~ торговый налог transfer ~ налог на передачу собственности turnover excluding ~ налог с учетом оборота turnover including ~ налог без учета оборота turnover ~ налог с оборота undistributed profit ~ налог на нераспределенную прибыль unearned income ~ налог на рентный доход value added ~ налог на добавленную стоимость vehicle ~ налог на автотранспортные средства wage bill ~ налог на фонд заработной платы wage ~ налог на заработную плату wealth ~ налог на имущество ~ амер. разг. спрашивать, назначать цену;
what will you tax me? сколько это будет (мне) стоить? windfall profits ~ налог на непредвиденную прибыль withholding ~ налог на процентный доход и дивиденды, выплачиваемые нерезидентам withholding ~ налог путем вычетов withholding ~ налог с суммы дивидендов, распределяемых среди держателей акций withholding ~ подоходный налог, взимаемый путем регулярных вычетов из заработной платы ~ чрезмерно напрягать, подвергать испытанию;
утомлять;
the work taxes my powers эта работа слишком тяжела для меня

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > tax
20 aircraft

летательный аппарат, ЛА; самолет; вертолёт; воздушное судно, ВС; проф. борт

to accommodate an aircraft — размещать воздушное судно ( на аэродроме);

to align the aircraft — устанавливать воздушное судно по указанному курсу;

to bring the aircraft back — возвращать воздушное судно ( на установленный курс);

to bring the aircraft in — вводить воздушное судно в крен;

to bring the aircraft out — выводить воздушное судно из крена;

to charter an aircraft — фрахтовать воздушное судно;

to consider an aircraftserviceable — допускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатации;

to cover an aircraft — зачехлять воздушное судно;

to endanger an aircraft — создавать опасность для воздушного судна;

to enter the aircraft — заносить воздушное судно в реестр ( авиакомпании),

to head an aircraft into wind — направлять воздушное судно против ветра;

to identify an aircraft — опознавать воздушное судно;

to install in the aircraft — устанавливать на борту воздушного судна ( внутри фюзеляжа);

to join an aircraft — совершать посадку на борт воздушного судна;

to level an aircraft out — выравнивать воздушное судно ( на заданной высоте); устанавливать воздушное судно в горизонтальное положение;

to line up an aircraft — выруливать воздушное судно на исполнительный старт;

to make an aircraft airborne — отрывать воздушное судно от земли;

to operate an aircraftsafely — безопасно эксплуатировать воздушное судно;

to pull an aircraft — 1. брать штурвал на себя 2. выводить воздушное судно из пикирования;

to put an aircraft on the course — выводить воздушное судно на заданный курс ( полёта);

to release the aircraft — прекращать( диспетчерский) контроль ( за полётом) воздушного судна, разрешать воздушному судну выйти из зоны контроля;

to return the aircraft to service — допускать воздушное судно к дальнейшей эксплуатации;

to roll in the aircraft — вводить воздушное судно в крен;

to roll out the aircraft — 1. выводить воздушное судно из крена 2. выкатывать воздушное судно (напр. из ангара);

to rotate the aircraft — отрывать (поднимать) переднюю опору шасси воздушного судна ( при взлёте),

to steer an aircraft — вести воздушное судно, управлять воздушным судном ( при рулении);

aircraft under control — управляемое ( экипажем) воздушное судно

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abandoned aircraft
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accelerator aircraft
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active-cooling hypersonic aircraft
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aerodynamically balanced aircraft
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airborne aircraft
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all-body aircraft
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all-cargo aircraft
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all-purpose aircraft
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all-weather aircraft
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all-wing aircraft
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amphibian aircraft
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authorized aircraft
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balanced aircraft
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baseline aircraft
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basic aircraft
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boost-glide aircraft
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business aircraft
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canard aircraft
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cargo aircraft
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chartered aircraft
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cleared aircraft
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combination aircraft
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conventional takeoff and landing aircraft
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convertible aircraft
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derived aircraft
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environmentally attuned aircraft
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fixed-wing aircraft
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folding-wing aircraft
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forest patrol aircraft
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freight aircraft
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fuel-conservative aircraft
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heavier-than-air aircraft
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high-capacity aircraft
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high-wing aircraft
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hospital aircraft
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hydrogen-fuelled aircraft
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improperly loaded aircraft
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in-coming aircraft
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in-service aircraft
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interchanged aircraft
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inward aircraft
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irrepairable aircraft
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jet aircraft
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laser-powered aircraft
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laser aircraft
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licensed aircraft
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lighter-than-air aircraft
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long-bodied aircraft
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long-range aircraft
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low annoyance aircraft
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low-wing aircraft
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methane-fuelled aircraft
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minishuttle launcher aircraft
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missing aircraft
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modified aircraft
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multiengined aircraft
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NASP aircraft
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nearly invisible aircraft
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nonnoise certificated aircraft
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oncoming aircraft
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outbound aircraft
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out-of-balance aircraft
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outward aircraft
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passive-cooling hypersonic aircraft
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piston-engined aircraft
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pressurized aircraft
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reduced takeoff and landing aircraft
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rotary-wing aircraft
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school aircraft
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search aircraft
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short takeoff and landing aircraft
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short-range aircraft
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solar powered aircraft
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state aircraft
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stayed afloat aircraft
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stretched aircraft
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subsonic aircraft
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supersonic aircraft
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training aircraft
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transonic aircraft
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twin-fuselage aircraft
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under command aircraft
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underway aircraft
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unlawfully seized aircraft
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unpressurized aircraft
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vertical takeoff and landing aircraft
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wide-body aircraft

Англо-русский словарь технических терминов > aircraft

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Charter school — Charter schools are primary or secondary schools that receive public money (and like other schools, may also receive private donations) but are not subject to some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools in… … Wikipedia
charter school — n. an alternative school that is founded on a charter, or contract, between a sponsoring group and a governmental unit and is funded with public money * * * (in the US) a school which receives money from the state but which operates separately… … Universalium
charter school — n. an alternative school that is founded on a charter, or contract, between a sponsoring group and a governmental unit and is funded with public money … English World dictionary
charter school — charter .school n a school in the US that is run by parents, companies etc rather than by the public school system, but which the state government supports … Dictionary of contemporary English
charter school — older uses refer to schools in Ireland begun 1733 by the Charter Society to provide Protestant education to poor Catholic children. Modern use in U.S. began c.1988, as an alternative to state run public education … Etymology dictionary
Charter School — Dieser Artikel wurde im Projekt Bildung zur Verbesserung eingetragen. Hilf mit, ihn zu bearbeiten und beteilige dich an der Diskussion! Vorlage:Projekthinweis/Wartung/Bildung Folgendes muss noch verbessert werden: Struktur, Wikifizierung, weitere … Deutsch Wikipedia
Charter School (Massachusetts) — Charter schools operate with considerably more independence than traditional public schools. They are free to structure their curriculum and school environment; for instance, many charter schools fit more instructional hours into a year by… … Wikipedia
Charter School of Wilmington — Address 100 N. DuPont Road Wilmington, Delaware, 19807 USA Coordinates … Wikipedia
Charter school (North Carolina) — Charter schools in North Carolina are public schools operating under a different set of rules than the typical state run schools. Though they are exempt from many requirements, charter schools are required to administer the state s battery of… … Wikipedia
Charter school (New York) — Main article: Charter school See also: Education in New York This article is mainly about characteristics specific to those charter schools that are in New York State. Contents 1 Authorizers 2 Governing state law … Wikipedia
Charter School Institute — The Charter School Institute is an independent agency of the U.S. State of Colorado Department of Education. The Institute operates 18 independent public charter schools in the State of Colorado. The Institute is governed by a nine member Board… … Wikipedia

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charter school

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charter school

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